amarkand (Uzbek: Samarqand; Cyrillic/Russian: Самарканд from Sogdian: "Stone Fort" or "Rock Town"), alternatively Samarqand orSamarcand, traditionally was the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Samarqand Province. It is now the nation's third largest, after fast-growing Namangan in the Ferghana Valley.[1] The city is most noted for its central position on the Silk Road betweenChina and the West, and for being an Islamic centre for scholarly study. In the 14th century it became the capital of the empire of Timur(Tamerlane) and is the site of his mausoleum (the Gur-e Amir). The Bibi-Khanym Mosque (a modern replica) remains one of the city's most notable landmarks. The Registan was the ancient center of the city. The city has carefully preserved the traditions of ancient crafts: embroidery, gold embroidery, silk weaving, engraving on copper, ceramics, carving and painting on wood.[2]
In 2001, UNESCO added the city to its World Heritage List as Samarkand – Crossroads of Cultures.
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[hide]Etymology[edit]
The city was known by its Greek name of Marakanda when Alexander the Great took it in 329 BC.[3] The name probably originates in the Sogdian words asmara, "stone", "rock" and kand, "fort", "town".[4]
People[edit]
According to various independent sources, Tajiks (Persian-speaking people) are the major ethnic group in the city, while ethnic Uzbeks form a growing minority.[5] Exact figures are difficult to evaluate, since many people in Uzbekistan either identify as "Uzbek" even though they speak Eastern Persian as their first language, or because they are registered as Uzbeks by the central government despite their Eastern Persian language and identity. As explained by Paul Bergne:
History[edit]
See also: Timeline of Samarkand history
Along with Bukhara,[6] Samarkand is one of the oldest inhabited cities in Central Asia, prospering from its location on the trade route between China and the Mediterranean (Silk Road). At times Samarkand has been one of the greatest cities of Central Asia.[7]
Early history[edit]
Archeological excavations held within the city limits (Syob and midtown) as well as suburban areas (Hojamazgil, Sazag'on) unearthed evidence of human activity as early as 40000 years old, which is late paleolithic era. A group of Mesolithic era (12-7 millennium BC) archeological sites were discovered at Sazag'on-1, Zamichatosh, Okhalik (suburbs of the city). Syob and Darg'om canals, supplying with water the city and its suburbs appeared around the 7th to 5th centuries BC (early Iron Age). There is no direct evidence of when exactly Samarkand was founded. Researchers of Institute of Archeology of Samarkand argue existence of the city between the 8th and 7th centuries BC. Samarkand has been one of the main centres of Sogdian civilization from its early days. By the time of the Achaemenid dynasty of Persia it had become the capital of the Sogdian satrapy.
The Hellenistic period[edit]
While settlement in the region goes well back into pre-historic times, by the seventh century before the Common Era (BCE), the town seems to have housed a substantial center of craft production and already boasted an extensive irrigation system. It was one of the easternmost administrative centers for Achaemenid Persia and had a citadel and strong fortifications.Alexander the Great conquered Samarkand in 329 BCE. The city was known as Maracanda by the Greeks.[8] Written sources offer small clues as to the subsequent system of government.[9]They tell of an Orepius who became ruler "not from ancestors, but as a gift of Alexander".[10]
While Samarkand suffered significant damage during Alexander's initial conquest, the city recovered rapidly and under the new Hellenic influence flourished. There were also major new construction techniques; oblong bricks were replaced with square ones and superior methods of masonry and plastering were introduced.[11] It was later part of Seleucid Empire, Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and Kushan Empire successively. Alexander's conquests introduced into Central Asia Classical Greek culture; at least for a time the Greek models were followed closely by the local artisans. The Greek legacy lived on in the various "Graeco-Bactrian" kingdoms of the area and the Kushan Empire of the first centuries of the Common Era whose territories extended well down into what is today Pakistan and India. During the Kushan era the city declined though; it did not really revive until the fifth century CE.
| Samarkand – Crossroads of Culture | |
|---|---|
| Name as inscribed on the World Heritage List | |
.JPG)
| |
| Type | Cultural |
| Criteria | i, ii, iv |
| Reference | 603 |
| UNESCO region | Asia-Pacific |
| Inscription history | |
| Inscription | 2001 (25th Session) |
The pre-Mongol period[edit]
Samarkand was conquered by the Sassanians around AD 260. Under Sassanian rule the region became an essential site for Manichaeism, and facilitated the dissemination of the religion throughout central Asia.[12]
After the Sassanian disaster against the Hephtalites who managed to conquer Samarkand, Samarkand was controlled by the Hephtalites until they were defeated by the Göktürks, in an alliance with the Sassanid Persians during the Battle of Bukhara. The Turks ruled over Samarkand until they were defeated by the Sassanids during the Göktürk–Persian Wars. After the Islamic conquest of Iran the Turks conquered Samarkand and held it until Turkic qaghanate collapsed due to wars with the Chinese Tang Dynasty. During this time the city became a protectorate and paid tribute to the ruling Tang. The armies of the Umayyad Caliphate under Qutayba ibn Muslim captured the city in around AD 710.[12]
During this period, Samarkand was a diverse religious community and was home to a number of religions, including Buddhism, Zoroastrianism,Hinduism, Manichaeism, Judaism and Nestorian Christianity.[13] However, after the Arab conquest of Sogdiana, Islam became the dominant religion in Samarkand, with much of the population converting.[14]
Legend has it that during Abbasid rule,[15] the secret of papermaking was obtained from two Chinese prisoners from the Battle of Talas in 751, which led to the foundation of the first paper mill of the Islamic world in Samarkand. The invention then spread to the rest of the Islamic world, and from there to Europe.
The Abbasid control of Samarkand soon dissipated and was replaced with that of the Samanids (AD 862–999), though it must be noted that the Samanids were still nominal vassals of the Caliph during their control of Samarkand. Under Samanid rule the city became one of the capitals of the Samanid dynasty and an even more important link amongst numerous trade routes. The Samanids were overthrown by Turkish tribes in around AD 1000. During the next two hundred years, Samarkand would be ruled by a succession of Turkish tribes, including the Seljuqs and theKhwarazm-Shahs.[16]
The tenth-century Iranian author Istakhri, who travelled in Transoxiana, provides a vivid description of the natural riches of the region he calls "Smarkandian Sogd":
| “ | I know no place in it or in Samarkand itself where if one ascends some elevated ground one does not see greenery and a pleasant place, and nowhere near it are mountains lacking in trees or a dusty steppe....Samakandian Sogd...[extends] eight days travel through unbroken greenery and gardens....The greenery of the trees and sown land extends along both sides of the river [Sogd]...and beyond these fields is pasture for flocks. Every town and settlement has a fortress...It is the most fruitful of all the countries of Allah; in it are the best trees and fruits, in every home are gardens, cisterns and flowing water... | ” |
The Mongol Period[edit]
The Mongols conquered Samarkand in 1220. Although Genghis Khan "did not disturb the inhabitants [of the city] in any way", according to Juvaini he killed all who took refuge in the citadel and the mosque. He also pillaged the city completely and conscripted 30,000 young men along with 30,000 craftsmen. Samarkand suffered at least one other Mongol sack by Khan Baraq to get treasure he needed to pay an army. The town took many decades to recover from these disasters.
The Travels of Marco Polo, where Polo records his journey along the Silk Road, describes Samarkand as a "a very large and splendid city..." Here also is related the story of a Christian church in Samarkand, which miraculously remained standing after a portion of its central supporting column was removed.
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